Hysterectomy

Hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus and is the second most frequently performed surgery in premenopausal women. (Cesarean sections are first.) About 600,000 hysterectomies are performed each year in the US, which is the highest rate among any nations with published data on this procedure. By age 60, about a third of American women have had this procedure. The highest hysterectomy rates are in women between ages 40 and 44. Women in the southern and midwestern areas of the United States are more likely to have a hysterectomy than women in the northeast and west.

The number of procedures has continued to increase, but only slightly in recent years. Endometriosis accounts for 18% of these procedures, but the rates vary widely by ethnic group, with the great majority of endometriosis-related hysterectomies performed in Caucasian women.

Hysterectomy does not necessarily cure endometriosis. One study reported that endometriosis reappeared in 13% of women within 3 years of a hysterectomy and in 40% after 5 years.

Most women are satisfied with the procedure. A major analysis of evidence on hysterectomies reported that symptoms related to menstrual problems decline significantly in most women, although none completely disappear for all women. The majority of women also experience improved quality of life and emotional functioning.  Women who have a hysterectomy are less likely to experience hot flashes than women who have a natural menopause.

Still, one study suggested that 70% of recommendations for hysterectomies did not meet the standard of care as determined by expert groups. In such cases, patients were not given alternative choices or adequate diagnostic evaluations. Any woman, even one who has reached menopause, who is uncertain about a recommendation for a hysterectomy should certainly seek a second opinion.

Determining the Extent of the Hysterectomy

Once a decision for a hysterectomy has been made, the patient should discuss with her doctor what will be removed. The common choices are:

• Total Hysterectomy (Removal of uterus and cervix). Removing only the uterus with hysterectomy, has the same risk for recurrence as conservative surgery.
• Supracervical Hysterectomy (Removal of uterus and preservation of the cervix). Procedure is performed in about 20 - 25% of cases.
• Bilateral Salpingo-Oophorectomy (Removal of the fallopian tubes and ovaries). It can be used with either total or supracervical hysterectomy. This is the only potential cure for endometriosis. If endometriosis has developed outside the uterus then even this procedure is not curative.

Hysterectomy is surgical removal of the uterus, resulting in inability to become pregnant. This surgery may be done for a variety of reasons including, but not restricted to, chronic pelvic inflammatory disease, uterine fibroids and cancer. A hysterectomy may be done through an abdominal or a vaginal incision.

Total Hysterectomy. In a total hysterectomy the uterus and cervix are removed; this eliminates the risk of uterine and cervical cancer. (Given technical advances and growing surgical experience, a total hysterectomy may eventually be unnecessary except in special circumstances, such as when cancer is present.)

Supracervical Hysterectomy. In a supracervical hysterectomy the uterus is removed and the cervix is retained. Retaining the cervix helps support the pelvic floor and may help maintain full sexual sensation, but the risk for cervical cancer remains.

Bilateral Oophorectomy. Bilateral oophorectomy is the removal of both ovaries. (When only one ovary is removed, the procedure is called oophorectomy.) Bilatera salpingo-oophorectomy is the removal of both fallopian tubes plus both ovaries. These procedures may be performed with either total or supracervical hysterectomy. When a woman decides to have her ovaries removed, she should be aware of both the positive and negative consequences.

Oophorectomy significantly reduces the rates of re-operation and endometrial pain recurrence compared to hysterectomy alone. By removing the ovaries, oophorectomy causes estrogen loss and helps to reduce the risk for ovarian cancer and breast cancer. Premenopausal women should realize, however, that oophorectomy causes immediate menopause, which poses a risk for a number of health problems. These problems include osteoporosis, heart disease, skin wrinkling, and reduction in muscle tone. Estrogen replacement can help offset them. Women who have a bilateral oophorectomy and do not receive hormone replacement therapy may experience more severe hot flashes than women who enter menopause naturally.

Abdominal vs. Vaginal Hysterectomy

There is still a further choice, which is whether the hysterectomy should be performed through an incision in the abdomen or performed through the vagina. A variant of vaginal hysterectomy, called laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy (LAVH), is yet another option.

Abdominal Hysterectomy. Abdominal hysterectomy is the most common procedure and is used in over 80% of hysterectomies in African American women and about 60% in Caucasian and other ethnic groups. With the abdominal procedure, wide incision is required to open the abdominal area, from which the surgeon removes the uterus. If possible, the incision should cut horizontally across the top of the pubic hairline (called a bikini incision). This incision heals faster and is less noticeable than a vertical incision, which is used in more complicated cases. The patient may need to remain in the hospital for 3 to 4 days, and recuperation at home takes about 4 to 6 weeks.

Vaginal Hysterectomy. Vaginal hysterectomy requires only a vaginal incision through which the uterus is removed. It is used in less than 20% of cases in African American women and slightly under 40% among Caucasian and other groups.

A variation of the vaginal approach is called laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy (LAVH). It uses several small abdominal incisions through which the surgeon severs the attachments to the uterus and ovaries. They can then be removed through the vaginal incision, as in the standard approach. Hospitalization stays may be longer and costs are greater than with standard vaginal hysterectomy. The use of LAVH has risen significantly over the past years and is now employed in over a quarter of the procedures. LAVH is very costly, however, and some experts question whether it adds any significant benefits compared to the standard vaginal procedure.

Postoperative Care

If possible, a patient should ask a family member or friend to help out for the first few days at home. The following are some of the precautions and tips for postoperative care:

• For a day or two after surgery, the patient is given medications to prevent nausea and pain killers to relieve pain at the incision site.
• As soon as the doctor recommends it, usually within a day of the operation, the patient should get up and walk in order to help prevent pneumonia, reduce the risk of blood-clot formation, and to hasten recovery.
• Walking and slow, deep breathing exercises may help to relieve gas pains, which can cause major distress for the first few days.
• Coughing can cause pain, which may be reduced by holding a pillow over a surgical abdominal wound or by crossing the legs after vaginal surgery.
• Patients are advised not to lift heavy objects, not to douche or take baths, and not to climb stairs or drive for several weeks.
• For the first few days after surgery, many women weep frequently and unexpectedly. These mood swings may be due to depression from the loss of reproductive capabilities and form abrupt changes in hormones, particularly if the ovaries have been removed.

The patient should discuss with the doctor when exercise programs more intense than walking can be started. The abdominal muscles are important for supporting the upper body, and recovering strength may take a long time. Even after the wound has healed, the patient may experience an on-going feeling of overall weakness, which can be demoralizing, particularly in women used to physical health. Some women do not feel completely well for as long as a year; others may recover in only a few weeks.

Complications Following the Procedure

Minor complications after hysterectomy are very common. About half of women develop minor and treatable urinary tract infections. There is usually mild pain and light vaginal bleeding post operation. The infrequent occurrence of severe bleeding or hemorrhaging after vaginal hysterectomy, or laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy, may be promptly treated by laparoscopy.

More serious complications, such as those described below, are uncommon but patients should be aware of their symptoms and call the doctor immediately if they occur.

Among the three procedures, a 2001 study reported that complication rates were 44% for abdominal hysterectomy, 24% for vaginal hysterectomy, and only 2% for LAVH. (LAVH is used in less than 4% of hysterectomies, however.)

Infection. Infection occurs in 10 - 15% of patients, the risk being higher with abdominal than with vaginal surgery. Risk factors for infection appear to be obesity, a longer than normal operative time, and low socioeconomic status. Patients should be aware of any symptoms and call the doctor immediately if they occur:

• Continuing or increasingly severe pain
• Fever
• Heavy discharge
• Bleeding (antibiotics given at the time of surgery help to reduce this risk)

Blood Clots. There is a slight risk for small blood clots, usually in veins of the legs (thrombophlebitis). A sudden swelling or discoloration in the leg can indicate this condition and require immediate medical attention.

Click the icon to see an image of thrombophlebitis.

Other Serious Complications. Other serious and even life-threatening complications are rare but can include:

• Pulmonary embolism (blood clots that travel to the lung)

Click the icon to see an image of a pulmonary embolism.

• Surgical injury of the urinary or intestinal tracts  
• Abscesses
• Perforation of the bowel
• Fistulas (a passage that bores from an organ to the skin or to another organ)
• Dehiscence (opening of the surgical wound)

Long-Term Complications. Women who have had a total hysterectomy are at higher risk for the following long-term complications:

• Muscle weakness in the pelvic area
• Prolapse (descent) of the bladder, vagina, and rectum if the muscle’s walls are overly weakened; may require further surgery.
• Bowel problems may develop if adhesions (extensive scarring) have formed and obstruct the intestines, sometimes requiring additional surgery
• Shortening of the vagina is a possible complication specific to vaginal hysterectomy. It can cause pain during intercourse.

Such complications are uncommon.

Treating Menopausal Symptoms and Premature Menopause after Hysterectomy

After hysterectomy, women may experience hot flashes, a symptom of menopause, even if they retain their ovaries. However, women who have a hysterectomy are less likely to experience hot flashes than women who have a natural menopause. Surgery may have temporarily blocked blood flow to the ovaries, therefore suppressing estrogen release. If both ovaries have been removed in premenopausal women, the procedure causes premature menopause. Other menopausal symptoms include vaginal dryness and irritation, insomnia, and weight gain.

The most important complications occur in women who have had their ovaries removed. This causes estrogen loss, which places women at risk for osteoporosis (loss of bone density) and a possible increase in risks for heart disease. Women have typically taken taking hormone replacement therapy (HRT) after surgery if their ovaries have been removed. HRT can help prevent hot flashes. There have been concerns, however, about health risks, including the risk for breast cancer and stroke. A number of drugs are available that can help protect both bones and heart.

In premenopausal women, such preventive measures are not needed if the ovaries are left intact. The ovaries will usually continue to function and secrete hormones even after the uterus is removed, but the life span of the ovaries is reduced by an average of 3 to 5 years. In rare cases, complete ovarian failure occurs right after hysterectomy, presumably because the surgery has permanently cut off the ovaries' blood supply.

Psychologic and Sexual Concerns after Hysterectomy

Sexual intercourse may resume 4 to 6 weeks following surgery. The effect of hysterectomy on sexuality is unclear. Studies have reported that up to 25% of women experience increased sexual drive. Nevertheless, some women report no change and other women develop problems related to sexual function. For example, around 10% of women experience vaginal dryness, about 2% of women develop pain during sex, and another 2% also appear to lose capacity for orgasm.

Two procedures associated with hysterectomy may affect sexuality directly.

• Although the clitoris can trigger orgasm even if the cervix is removed, many experts believe that uterine contractions stimulated by sexual intercourse also cause a so-called “deep orgasm.” Retaining the cervix may help to retain this sensation.
• Patients who have both ovaries removed may be at higher risk for loss of sexuality. Ovaries produce small amounts of testosterone (the male hormone responsible for sexual drive) even after menopause.

Testosterone Replacement. Testosterone replacement therapy may restore sexuality in women who experience a decline in sexual drive. Occasionally, oral or injection treatments can produce male characteristics such as facial hair and voice change. A slow-release pellet inserted every 6 months under the skin in the hip appears to reduce these side effects. A patch (Intrinsa) is also in development. Taking hormones long term almost always carries some risks, and it is not yet known what danger testosterone replacement may pose in women. Support groups and counseling can provide important help for this problem.

Pap Smears

Annual Pap smears are recommended for all women with an intact cervix who have reached the age of 18 or over or who have become sexually active. After a total hysterectomy, in which the cervix has been removed, a woman does not need annual Pap smears of the cervix. However, she still should get regular pelvic and breast exams. Also, women with a history of abnormal Pap smears usually require annual screening.