Lifestyle Changes
Quitting Smoking
Quitting improves lung function almost immediately. Some evidence suggests that the benefits for the lungs are even more significant for women who quit than for men. It should be noted, however, that it can take 20 years or longer, particularly in heavy smokers, for the lungs to be restored to a fully healthy condition in which the risk is as low as nonsmokers. Quitting is extremely difficult. No one should be discouraged if they relapse. Everyone should keeping trying to quit. With continued efforts, many people succeed.
At this time perhaps the most effective method for quitting is a combination of the following:
- Nicotine replacement products reduce withdrawal symptoms and cravings.
- The antidepressants bupropion (Zyban) or nortriptyline (Pamelor, Aventyl) reduce emotional effects and cravings associated with withdrawal and improve abstinence rates.
- Professional counseling or support organizations may be very effective in addition to the medication in helping people maintain abstinence.
For more information, see In-Depth Report #41, Smoking. While people are in the process of quitting (and afterwards), they should maintain as healthy a lifestyle as possible.
Dietary Factors
Phytochemicals. Some data suggests that diets rich in fresh fruits and vegetables may be protective against lung cancer in both smokers and non-smokers. Some studies have reported protection from specific food chemicals (phytochemicals), such as the following:
- Isothiocyanates. These chemicals are found in the cruciferous vegetables (e.g., broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts). These may help block the effects of carcinogens in smoke, suppress tumor growth, and inhibit growth-promoting steroid hormones.
- Flavonoids. Major sources are apples, grapefruit, onions, red wine, and tea. In one study on flavonoids, apple eaters had the lowest cancer risk, 68% less than those who ate fruit infrequently. In another, those who ate relatively more onions, apples, and white grapefruit had less than half the lung cancer risk as people who ate relatively small amounts of these foods. Flavonoids are also found in soybeans, berries, broccoli, carrots, citrus fruits, eggplant, peppers, squash, and tomatoes. Specific flavonoids in dark chocolate may be protective against lung cancer (but not other cancers).
- Lycopene. Lycopene is found in tomatoes, which have been associated with a lower risk for lung cancer. Cooking the tomatoes appears to increase the potency of lycopene.
- Cryptoxanthin. Some studies suggest that eating foods rich in cryptoxanthin, a yellow-orange pigment, reduces the risk for lung cancer. Foods with high amounts of cryptoxanthin include pumpkin, corn, papaya, red bell peppers, tangerines, oranges, and peaches. More research is needed in this area, however.
- Isoflavones. Isoflavones, found in soy beans and flax seed, behave like estrogen in some ways and not in others. Some evidence suggests the genistein in soy may have properties that are protective against lung cancer.
Click the icon to see an image of phytochemicals.
Note: Studies on these chemicals are not consistent. It is unlikely that individual phytochemicals offer protection, but rather that the benefits come from a collection of vitamins and plant chemicals contained in fruits and vegetables. Fruit, especially, appears to be protective.
Fats and Oils. Some studies have indicated that diets high in animal fats increase the risk for lung cancer. Others have suggested some protection from cod liver oil, which contains omega-3 fatty acids (found in fatty fish), omega-6 fatty acids (found in flax and in soybean and canola oils), and monounsaturated oils (found in olive and canola oils). Of interest was a 2002 study reporting that women who had a high intake of cheese had a lower risk of lung cancer. Despite these intriguing pieces of information, the ability of these substances to protect against lung cancer remains controversial, and discontinuation of smoking remains the best advice.
Click the icon to see an image of fats and oils.
Vitamins Supplements. Even with a healthful diet, smoking reduces the levels of a number of vitamins, importantly vitamin C. There is no evidence, however, to support any protection from antioxidant supplements, including vitamins E, A, or beta carotene.
In fact, evidence is now suggesting that high doses of vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta carotene supplements may have harmful effects. A 2000 study, for example, reported a higher risk for cancer in male smokers who took multivitamins plus A, C, or E. The strongest studies to date on negative effects of antioxidant supplements have reported an increase in lung cancer and overall mortality rates among smokers who took beta carotene supplements. In determining reasons for this disturbing effect, one animal study suggested that beta carotene increased enzymes in the lungs that actually promote cancerous changes. In other words, antioxidants may actually be harmful in people who already harbor cancer cells. This is particularly important information for smokers, who may carry precancerous or cancerous cells for years prior to developing the disease. The best way of achieving healthy levels of important nutrients is from healthy foods.
Click the icon to see the benefits of vitamin A.
Click the icon to see dietary sources of vitamin A.
Trace Elements Supplements. Trace elements may be important in cancer risk and prevention.
Selenium appears to inhibit cell proliferation and may have other anti-cancer properties. A few studies have reported some protection with selenium. However, a major 2002 analysis supports previous work, indicating that taking selenium helps only people who are deficient to begin with.
Click the icon to see the benefits of selenium.
Zinc may prove to be more important than selenium. Some research suggests that zinc may help protect smokers by blocking cadmium. Smokers have higher levels of cadmium in their body, and there may be a link between cadmium and a higher risk for lung cancer. Some laboratory studies have indicated that zinc might help protect against tumor progression. There is no evidence that taking zinc supplements will reduce the risk for lung cancer, however.
Exercise
A 2003 study reported a lower risk in lung cancer in men and women who were physically active. Both moderate and intensive exercises were associated with protection.
Protecting the Home Against Radon
People concerned about radon in their home or area can purchase a test approved by the Environmental Protection Agency. Methods for removing radon include installing a soil suction system. It should be noted, however, that home prevention measures rarely reduce radon levels to zero. Simply sleeping by an open window reduces the risk.
Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) and COX-2 Inhibitors (Coxibs)
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and COX-2 inhibitors (coxibs) both block cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes. NSAIDs block COX-1 and 2, and coxibs selectively block COX-2. Evidence now strongly suggests that the COX-2 enzyme plays a role in blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) that can feed lung cancers.
NSAIDs. NSAIDs include aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil), and naproxen (Aleve, Naprosyn, Naprelan, Anaprox). These agents inhibit COX-2 but they also target another COX enzyme. Studies are now reporting an association between regular use of aspirin or other NSAIDs and a reduced risk for non-small cell lung cancer.
COX-2 Inhibitors. The COX-2 inhibitors are more recent forms of NSAIDs. Currently, only celecoxib (Celebrex) is still on the market. Rofecoxib (Vioxx) and valdecoxib (Bextra) have been withdrawn from the market due to their high risk of causing strokes and heart attacks. Because they target the COX-2 enzyme specifically, researchers are focusing on these drugs for a possible role in treating lung cancer and preventing recurrence.
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